Content
- Lets Talk About Cbda And Its Possible Benefits
- Choose The Cbd That Fits You Best
- Get Our Health Newsletter
- The Takeaway: Cbd Oil For Menstrual Cramps
- Maximizing Your Hemp Oil Experience With A True Entourage Effect
- Cbd Oil And Alzheimers Disease
- Can Cbd Help With Inflammation?
- Should You Take Cbd For Pain?
- 2 Cbd For Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Pcos
Clinically, it’s your body’s white blood cells that respond to protecting you from infection from outside invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. It can be acute or chronic, depending on what your body is protecting you from. The swelling of a joint can mean your body is healing you from the inside out, for example. Interestingly enough, CBD, one of nature’s top healing experts, has been proven to decrease inflammation significantly.
The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners. Don’t use cannabis or cannabinoids to postpone seeing a health care provider about a medical problem. Some people who use cannabis develop cannabis use disorder, which has symptoms such as craving, withdrawal, lack of control, and negative effects on personal and professional responsibilities. Observational studies haven’t provided clear evidence on whether cannabis is helpful or harmful for PTSD symptoms.
Lets Talk About Cbda And Its Possible Benefits
They also make it easy for you to know how much CBD is getting into your body. By acting on or influencing CB2 receptors and inducing production of serotonin, CBD plays a key role in helping people suffering from PTSD by preventing them from retrieving their nightmares and traumatic memories. Some studies have found that CBD may be safe and effective in providing relief from post-traumatic stress and managing PTSD in general. While these studies have shown that CBD might be an effective treatment route for diabetes, more research is needed to be carried out in humans. An array of animal, test-tube and human studies have shown that CBD has potential anti-cancer properties.
By providing a high-quality CBD, it may allow your ECS to function as it was intended which may help in areas such as, sleep deprivation, persistent pain, nervousness, and aggravation. According to the manufacturer, Keoni Cannabidiol Gummies is a relatively new product that has been produced using modern technology. The greatest advantage of this formula is that it’s non-habit forming and has no side effects. With the many associated side effects of conventional treatment for inflammation, treating inflammation with CBD can to a large extent prevent the development of more serious medical conditions. Our ECS, the CB1 and CB2 receptors, play a crucial role in regulating inflammation in your body. When your ECS is unbalanced, and your body is not producing inflammation regulating cannabinoids naturally, you can help to restore balance by taking a CBD supplement.
It works by targeting a system called the endocannabinoid system — which is responsible for regulating the health of the nerve cells. Animal studies involving mice with collagen-induced arthritis treated with CBD showed a dramatic improvement in pain symptoms Gominolas de CBD in the mice given CBD compared to the control group . There are dozens of studies available that cover the effects of CBD for arthritis. Most of this research has shown promising results using both topical CBD pain creams and CBD oils for arthritis.
While these results are promising and most FDA-accredited treatment is initially tested on animals, rigorous clinical trials on humans are wanted to move CBD from various treatment to approved medicine. For the past several decades, multiple studies have proven the anti-inflammatory benefits of phytocannabinoids and terpenoids, which are compounds that are abundant in the cannabis plant. Pain from inflammation is inevitable and likely will affect all adults at some point in their life.
As a matter of fact, the presence of CBD in your brain can disintegrate the binding between CB1 and THC, reducing the psychoactive effects of marijuana. Yes, both CBD and THC are both cannabinoids, and they are found in the cannabis plant. When the Control Substance Act was passed in 1970, cultivation of both hemp and marijuana was banned, making it even hard to research or use CBD extract. Pliny the Elder claims that the Romans used cannabis hemp to relief pain and to perform healing arts. Archeologists have also found some cannabis buried in the tombs of Ancient Egyptians and Greeks.
Spruce is also unique for using a moonshine extraction method to isolate a CBD-rich extract from hemp. Although most CBD companies use CO2 extraction, alcohol extraction is just as safe and effective. What you need to know (and what we’re working to find out) about products containing cannabis or cannabis-derived compounds, including CBD. People with ulcerative colitis may want to consider alternative treatments such as CBD to help manage their symptoms.
The novel endocannabinoid receptor GPR55 is activated by atypical cannabinoids but does not mediate their vasodilator effects. (+)-Cannabidiol analogues which bind cannabinoid receptors but exert peripheral activity only. A role for L-alpha-lysophosphatidylinositol and GPR55 in the modulation of migration, orientation and polarization of human breast cancer cells.
Choose The Cbd That Fits You Best
A 2017 study published in JAMA tested the cannabinoid content of 84 CBD products from 31 companies. The researchers found that a shocking 69 percent of CBD products didn’t contain the amount of CBD reported on the label, while 18 of the products contained THC. In their survey of dozens of CBD products, they found that the dose of CBD per suggested serving ranged from 1.3 mg to 22.3 mg, a 15-fold difference! On top of that, the cost to obtain 10 mg of CBD from each product ranged from $0.80 to $4.73. Since CBD only binds weakly with CB1 and CB2 receptors, scientists believe that its anticonvulsant properties are probably due to interactions with the non-cannabinoid receptors TRPV1, 5-HT1A, and voltage-gated calcium channels.
For example, someone using CBD hemp oil to relieve chronic pain may use 5 mg per day until the pain subsides, whereas a multiple sclerosis patient may take 80 mg per day for 2-3 weeks at a time to soothe their symptoms. Generally speaking, the average amount for most medicinal applications is 25 mg, taken twice per day. In a medicinal context, THC works to amplify the therapeutic effects of anandamide. For instance, anandamide is an endogenous painkiller – many people use medical cannabis to relieve chronic pain. THC may also make up for natural deficiencies in endocannabinoids, which may be the underlying, and previously-hidden reason for certain illnesses.
One study found that Sativex decreased spasms in seventy five% of 276 individuals with a number of sclerosis who have been experiencing muscle spasticity that was resistant to medications . For example, epilepsy studies discovered that “there have been very clearly increases within the blood ranges of another anti-epileptic medicine when folks were on CBD,” Welty mentioned. There are also concerns about each the quality of CBD oil being produced and its potential unwanted side effects, the experts added. The rest of the potential makes use of — as an antipsychotic, antidepressant or sleep help “have all been studied in animals, with just one or two examples of studies in humans,” Bonn-Miller stated.
An in vitro study of the effect of CBD on programmed cell death in breast cancer cell lines found that CBD induced programmed cell death, independent of the CB1, CB2, or vanilloid receptors. Other studies have also shown the antitumor effect of cannabinoids (i.e., CBD and THC) in preclinical models of breast cancer. In addition, clinical trials are currently underway by GW Pharmaceuticals, testing the efficacy of Epidiolex, a purified CBD extract, for treatment of pediatric epilepsy. In doing so, CBD can lower pain sensations, improve sleep, lower symptoms of anxiety and depression, all of which are problems for patients with chronic pain. Besides being hard to diagnose and treat, chronic pain and inflammation can have a big impact on a person’s quality of life.
Substance use disorder is a extreme public health disadvantage worldwide for which obtainable treatments present limited effectiveness. Since the legalization of hashish and the approval of cannabidiol by the US Food and Drug Administration, therapeutic potential of CBD for the remedy of SUDs and totally different diseases has been broadly explored. “I was in a position to undertake my complete restoration from the back injury through the use of only CBD products, and now I continue to use them to help with inflammation and different muscle pains,” Kemp said. Amy Orr, writer of the e-book “Taming Chronic Pain,” has been utilizing CBD oil for 3 years to treat the inflammation and ache associated with irritable bowel disease, an autoimmune illness.
Wang Y., Mukhopadhyay P., Cao Z., Wang H., Feng D., Haskó G., Mechoulam R., Gao B., Pacher P. Cannabidiol attenuates alcohol-induced liver steatosis, metabolic dysregulation, inflammation and neutrophil-mediated injury. Iuvone T., Esposito G., Esposito R., Santamaria R., Di Rosa M., Izzo A.A. Neuroprotective effect of cannabidiol, a non-psychoactive component from Cannabis sativa, on beta-amyloid-induced toxicity in PC12 cells. El-Remessy A.B., Khalifa Y., Ola S., Ibrahim A.S., Liou G.I. Cannabidiol protects retinal neurons by preserving glutamine synthetase activity in diabetes. Smeriglio A., Giofrè S., Galati E.M., Monforte M.T., Cicero N., D’Angelo V., Grassi G., Circosta C. Inhibition of aldose reductase activity by Cannabis sativa chemotypes extracts with high content of cannabidiol or cannabigerol. Another natural phytocannabinoid is cannabimovone (1-[-3-(2,6-dihydroxy-4-pentylphenyl)-2-hydroxy-4-prop-1-en-2-ylcyclopentyl] ethanone), which has low affinity for the CB1 and CB2 receptors, but significant affinity for TRPV1 .
Now, consider psoriasis, in which you have a very thick top layer, and that makes it harder for the cannabinoid to penetrate the skin, Dr. Friedman explains. In one study produced byvarious institutions, tests revealed that CBD significantly decreased pain levels and limited mobility. More importantly, anxiety-like behavior was also observed to be lessened in rodent test subjects.
Similarly, endogenous cannabinoids have been shown to regulate airway responsiveness. It was reported that activation of CB1 receptors by locally released anandamide may participate in the control of bronchial contractility. Blocking of AEA-induced CB1 activity can enhance capsaicin-induced bronchospasm. However, the authors further suggested that the effects of AEA may depend on the state of the bronchial muscle. During capsaicin-evoked bronchospasm, AEA may reduce the muscle contraction, whereas AEA may cause bronchoconstriction in the absence of vagus nerve-constricting tone . During the past few years, awareness of the cannabinoid system in the pathophysiology of liver disease has gained momentum.
This action is mainly brought about by interaction with CB1 or C1 receptors. CBN is considered mildly psychoactive which makes it similar to THC, but the effects of CBN also resemble CBD, at the same time it also has its unique properties. But, a thick layer of controversy has always enveloped this magical product. The benefits and side effects of this product are a subject of hot debate.
There’s no downside here; flaxseed, fish, and olive oil are all good sources of omega 3 fatty acids. Again, these are typically by prescription only, for moderate to severe cases, and they target inflammation overall. But there’s no cure for rosacea, and it gets worse when you don’t treat it. This means you’re stuck with topicals and endless anti-inflammatory medications, and that can harm your renal system eventually. Your goal, as explained above, has to be to minimize inflammation using a variety of methods while not harming your body.
This cancer information summary provides an overview of the use of Cannabis and its components as a treatment for people with cancer-related symptoms caused by the disease itself or its treatment. Although hemp is similar to marijuana, it differs drastically in several ways. Hemp-derived CBD contains little to no THC, the main psychoactive compound found in marijuana.
Many patients are turning to cannabis and hemp products to cope with their illnesses. A September 2020 survey found that more than 40% of American patients with multiple sclerosis had used cannabis, CBD or other hemp/cannabis products in the last year. Full spectrum hemp extract is not the only remedy that helps reduce inflammation.
Those who are new to CBD should start by taking a single daily 5mg dose for about one week before reassessing and increasing the dose. Typically, mid-range doses give the best benefits over low or high doses. Purchase from companies who use third-party lab testing to test their products and that make test results easily available to its customers. Third-party lab test results allow you to know exactly what it is that you are putting inside of your body. All cannabis that is grown in Asia and Europe are not held to the same standards as hemp that’s grown in the United States.
One 2016 study looked at the effect of CBD on rats with joint inflammation. The researchers found that topical CBD gel reduced joint swelling and pain in the rats. Although THC is the cannabinoid that leads to the “high” feeling that many people associate with cannabis, research suggests that CBD can help ease inflammation, among other things. There are a few different kinds of cannabis, including Cannabis sativa.
Like I mentioned earlier, because it is a warning sign it typically correlates with many different diseases in humans. In this post I’m going to outline the collective body of current research on CBD and Hemp Extract with relation to Inflammation. CBD oil for inflammation is becoming increasingly more common as awareness around cannabis increases.
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If otherwise, it doesn’t state anywhere “Cannabidiol” or “CBD”, it’s most likely hemp seed oil. 2018 Farm Bill’s passing, the maximum amount of THC legally allowed to be in per gram of extract is 0.3% THC. Well below the amount that can cause intoxication effects unless a person takes high doses of CBD. If you have pain or inflammation in a localized area, such as your knee buy cbd gummies uk or back, then it’s best to use a CBD cream as you directly apply it to the place that’s most needed. You’ll see as we continue that CBD was also found to be safe specifically within the context of pain management. For both doctors and patients who have suffered under the tyranny of opioids for far too long, the apparent safety of CBD for pain is cause for celebration.
To better understand CBD, it helps to contrast it with tetrahydrocannabinol . There are, in fact, dozens of cannabinoids, as well as other substances in cannabis sativa. CBD, or cannabidiol, is recommended for everything from anxiety to indigestion.
This could potentially be very dangerous, changing a normal dose of medication into an overdose. Combining CBD and kratom could greatly increase the number of gut and liver enzymes that are bound up and therefore unavailable to metabolize medications properly. While it was originally believed that THC is a breakdown product of CBD, it is now known that both THC and CBD are actually metabolites of their decarboxylated acidic forms, THCa and CBDa. These acidic precursors are decarboxylated by heat or extraction to produce THC and CBD; only then do they become psychoactive.The compound has medicinal benefits without the “high” that some patients do not desire. This makes CBD appealing to patients who are looking for an alternative to their current meds, which often have opiate-like effects.
CBD will not cure arthritis or bring relief overnight, but it will provide some relief for many of the symptoms associated with arthritis, including joint pain and inflammation. It has been proven to have many health benefits for people who use it regularly; these benefits include reducing anxiety and depression and treating chronic pain and inflammation. In the later stages of disease, microglial cells secrete IL-12, IL-13 and IL-23, nitric oxide and glutamate and contribute to myelin sheath destruction.
Consumer Health Digest researched products on the web and, according to this guide, the three most important terms to know before purchasing your CBD oil are CBD volume, hemp oil volume, and CBD concentration. The second and third are the most critical, according to CHD, because they indicate the oil’s potency. Therefore, if you’re taking supplements or medications to help you sleep, CBD could enhance these effects even more. It’s important to keep this in mind if you’re performing activities that require maximum alertness, such as driving or operating heavy machinery. For instance, a 2015 study published in the journal Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior found that, in the right dose, caffeine can actually potentially help prevent CBD effects on memory.
Petrosino, S.; Verde, R.; Vaia, M.; Allaraà, M.; Iuvone, T.; Marzo, V.D. Anti-inflammatory properties of cannabidiol, a non-psychotropic cannabinoid, in experimental allergic contact dermatitis. McPartland, J.M.; Duncan, M.; Di Marzo, V.; Pertwee, R.G. Are cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabivarin negative modulators of the endocannabinoid system? Pan, H.; Mukhopadhyay, P.; Rajesh, M.; Patel, V.; Mukhopadhyay, B.; Gao, B.; Haskó, G.; Pacher, P. Cannabidiol attenuates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by decreasing oxidative/nitrosative stress, inflammation, and cell death. Look for brands that share a COA for each batch of CBD oil products they produce. These lab test results will help you verify the CBD and THC concentrations listed on the product label and help you avoid any contaminants like heavy metals and pesticides. Some CBD oil products will contain THC concentrations higher than 0.3%.
The Takeaway: Cbd Oil For Menstrual Cramps
CB2 receptors are primarily found in peripheral organs and in cells associated with the immune system. The effect of CBD works primarily with the immune system at the CB2 receptor level regulating immune function with its anti-inflammatory effect and therefore a potential treatment for post-vaccination side effects. Many studies of cannabis or cannabinoids in people with health problems have looked at effects on sleep.
Maximizing Your Hemp Oil Experience With A True Entourage Effect
The important thing to know about free radicals is that they are missing an electron and will take it from other molecules nearby. Rajesh M, Mukhopadhyay P, Hasko G, Huffman JW, Mackie K, Pacher P. CB2 cannabinoid receptor agonists attenuate TNF-α-induced human vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration. High level of cannabinoid receptor 1, absence of regulator of G protein signalling 13 and differential expression of cyclin D1 in mantle cell lymphoma. Targeting CB2 cannabinoid receptors as a novel therapy to treat malignant lymphoblastic disease.
Cannabidiol and turmeric have long been considered a natural combination to help remove toxins and inflammation from the body. These substances are appearing in teas, oils, capsules, and many other products, besides usual hemp derivatives with CBD for inflammation. Inflammation causes several other health conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, digestive issues, allergies, overworked muscles, and asthma. It is the body’s response against infections, injuries, or foreign agents.
A particular cannabidiol product has been shown to cut back seizures in adults and children with varied situations that are linked with seizures. This product is a prescription drug for treating seizures brought on by Dravet syndrome or Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. This product is usually taken together with standard anti-seizure medicines. Also, some research suggests that taking a higher dose might enhance nervousness related to public talking or medical imaging testing. Research on the usage of cannabidiol for psychotic signs in people with schizophrenia is conflicting.
For some, this has potential to become a chronic condition and generally interferes with a normal quality of life. Researchers need to conduct more studies in humans to fully understand how CBD works and how it can relieve symptoms such as pain and inflammation. This product contains 50 mg of full spectrum CBD per tablespoon, and its ingredients include jojoba oil, almond oil, and coconut oil. It is not suitable for people who have a coconut allergy and may not be suitable for those who cannot consume grapefruit. They are solvent-free, which means that the manufacturers extract the CBD without the use of chemicals such as propane and butane. This product is also cruelty-free, vegan, and made in the United States.
Cbd Oil And Alzheimers Disease
However, the greatest limitation to exploring the full efficacy of cannabis on inflammation and other IBD symptoms lies with the activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors by delta-9 THC and the resulting psychoactive effect. CBD, however, does not activate CB1 or CB2, and therefore is devoid of psychoactive properties. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of CBD therefore have great potential as a candidate for medically-accepted relief from IBD symptoms and inhibition of flare-ups.
Our mission is to help practitioners, health coaches, and health enthusiasts get the information they need to prevent and reverse chronic disease. If you wish to find out more about our editorial process and how we create content please enter here. After extensive research on CBD products available today, Ojai Energetics Hemp Elixir is my top choice. It’s what I use myself and with my family, and what I recommend to most of my patients, because it’s effective, safe, and made from 100 percent organic ingredients. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of CBD products on the market today. Unfortunately, according to ConsumerLab.com’s recent review, many of these products don’t contain the dose of CBD advertised on the label.
The Medterra CBD gummies are amazing, and the Medterra team adds a few extras to make the experience even better. CBD, vitamin C, zinc, and elderberry are among the ingredients in the Immune Boost version, which is ideal for those who take CBD candies for pain relief. Cheef Botanicals CBD Gummies are among the most powerful CBD products available. The gummies are constructed of healthy and herbal substances that are incredibly safe and efficacious to use, according to several consumer testimonies on the internet.
Whether it is supporting cutting-edge research, 24/7 access to one-on-one support, resources and tools for daily living, and more, your gift will be life-changing. Learn what experts say about using topicals and creams with CBD for arthritis pain. Learn how to spot common red flags so you get the highest quality product possible. If you experience any unwanted side effects when using a CBD product, immediately discontinue use and inform your doctor. Learn what the science says about the risks and benefits of CBD use for arthritis and what to shop for.
Can Cbd Help With Inflammation?
In some people, even severe stress and overwhelming excitement can cause inflammation. Inflammation is a complex biological response of the body when it fights harmful stimuli. This is a protective mechanism that involves several types of cells and organs, and its main function is to eliminate the initial cause of the injury, clear out the damaged tissues and initiate tissue repair.
Delta EFFEX’s delta-8 vape cartridges are sourced entirely from natural resources. Therefore, they do not make use of any kind of synthetic colors or flavoring agents in their products. In addition, all of their manufacturing ingredients and processes are cruelty-free. Moreover, this product produces effects equivalent to the inhalation of six strains simultaneously. You can either opt to buy single carts or ten-cart packs, whichever is more cost-effective, according to your needs. It was only when he went back to his home country of Israel that he was able to find people who had faith in his idea and funds to support it–as well as some friends at the police station to donate to the cause.
Although there is no cure for chronic inflammation, as it’s a wear-and-tear condition, various factors trigger it and there are ways you can avoid it. However, researchers continue to investigate how extremely aggressive immune activity, infection and other causes of inflammation may contribute to mental illnesses like depression. They’re also investigating whether it’s the depression driving the inflammation. Anxiety and depression are linked to changes in your brain chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
2 Cbd For Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome Pcos
Cannabinoids from hemp, like CBD, stimulate these same receptors, and in the process it can help modulate pain sensation and inflammation. In this 2018 review, researchers analyzed over a dozen studies on Delta 8-THC to analyze its safety. Researchers found that Delta 8-THC raised heart rate and blood pressure in animals, although these effects how much cbd oil should you take? Delta 8-THC raised heart rate in humans – but it did not raise blood pressure.
Number one on our CBD gummies for pain is the Delta 8 Gummies by BudPop. BudPop is an American company based in Los Angeles and one of the most reputable companies when it comes to Delta 8 products. These high potent gummies are one of the fastest and hottest selling gummies by BudPop, and they’re made with premium quality CBD. Take 1 of these gummies every gummy bear cbd edibles 6 hours and notice a substantial decrease in any recurring pain, ache, or inflammation. The administration of THC and CBD was shown to be at a more effectiveness than a dose of THC without CBD. The reinforcement by both cannabinoids demonstrates that although they share some of the same pathways, they do carry distinct pathways that relieve IBD symptoms .
While there’s no harm in sticking with the serving recommendations on your product label, there’s also no additional benefit in ingesting more Hemp Oil than your body needs. A hemp oil serving size that works well for someone else may be less than ideal for you. So, focus on identifying the smallest tincture dose necessary to achieve the needed results. Using a larger serving size will simply increase your cost of daily use. In laboratory tests and animal studies, CBD has been shown to inhibit the production of the metabolic enzymes that break down anandamide.
Especially in more severe rosacea patients, healthcare professionals correct disfigurement of the nose or treat visible blood vessels with intense pulsed light sources, lasers, or other medical and surgical devices. Anti-inflammatory medications and other therapy can also treat ocular rosacea, with the help of an eye doctor. Inhibiting the absorption of this compound shunts excess quantities into the bloodstream that in turn, may reduce pain.
The aim of this study is to give an up-to-date view on the influence of cannabinoids on inflammatory processes with the focus on immunity and allergic reactions, inflammatory pains and nerve inflammations. The study focuses further on interactions between endocannabinoid metabolism, prostanoids and nitric oxide. Presence of cannabinoids in the central nervous system, together with high-activity level of CB1 nerve receptors shows that endocannabinoid system can be an important factor for curing the nerve and inflammatory illnesses. By using different synthetic marijuana mixtures, manufacturers are able to continue to legally market their products in the United States when another formulation becomes illegal. Although they are often marketed as “100% organic herbs,” none of the fake weed products on the market are completely natural.
A study found that cannabinoids, like CBD and tetrahydrocannabinol , might reduce pain. Role of the cannabinoid system in pain control and therapeutic implications for the management of acute and chronic pain episodes. Individuals who prefer THC-free CBD products for their chronic inflammation may use broad-spectrum CBD instead. This type of Are delta 8 gummies legal? CBD has all the ingredients of a full-spectrum CBD except THC. Cannabinoids interact with the ECS and its receptors, known as cannabinoid receptor 1 and cannabinoid receptor 2 , to regulate vital body functions. When increased blood flow and cells arrive at an inflammation site, they may result in heat, swelling, loss of function, and pain.
Most cannabis plants are rich with Delta 9-THC, the well-known substance with psychoactive effects. The effects of CBD on immune responses can involve innate or adaptive responses. In assessing these responses, various cell types and their functions have been examined. For instance, a common end-point to examine regardless of cell type is cytokine or chemokine production. Typical proinflammatory cytokines include IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IL-17A, while IL-10 is considered anti-inflammatory.
These receptors are responsible for regulating the 5HT3 serotonin receptors that control the urge to vomit. CBD works indirectly by regulating a different type of serotonin receptor , which leads to reduced serotonin in the nausea center — leading to suppression of the nausea reflex. In recent years, a theory has surfaced that suggests anandamide deficiency as a key factor in the condition . Anandamide is a key component of the endocannabinoid system used to regulate nerve and epithelial cell function in the digestive tract.